MayneSALHE5500finalexam

Bailey

Spring 2008

1) Your instructor has reviewed several strategies to conduct and report on scientific research.  Discuss the procedures in the positivistic, scientific method and the components of this research paper. List two reasons why you agree or disagree with this worldview and how you might utilize it for your future research agenda.

Positivism is described in our text as a search for the “truth” or universal law by utilizing quantitative research. With quantitative research precise data can be collected while using large groups of participants. The components of this type of research are manipulation, control and randomization. Manipulation requires the researcher to manipulate variables involving the subject. Control allows the researcher to eliminate any interferences and randomization is used to reduce bias.

My study will utilize positivist/quantitative research with a true research design. This will require all of the components necessary for this type of research. All three groups will be randomly assigned. All three will be randomly assigned and all three will have a pre-test and a post-test. One unidentified group will be the control group.

2) We have stated that the researcher must remember the equation [dependent variables = independent variables]. Discuss the differences between independent and dependent variables and the influence one exerts upon the other.  How was this theorem influential in your study or project?

The dependent variable is the variable being studied for change.

The independent variable is the causative agent or variable being used to create change.

In my study the dependent variable is gingivitis in an otherwise healthy adult population. This variable will be measured and all subjects will match as closely as possible. Since this study calls for treatment, my independent variable will be the study rinses. The goal is to measure any change to the dependent variable caused by the independent variable.

3) Create a list of the independent variables you identified in your study (Hint: these are important client, institutional, environmental, or patient characteristics).  Give one example of a variable you could change or “fix” in a departmental, governmental, or organizational policy.

Outside of the treatment variable, the independent variables indentified that can be changed or eliminated are:

a)      Participant awareness of disease

b)      Undesirable health status

c)      Participant ability to travel to examination sites.

By utilizing several dental clinics in the area participants will be able to easily access examination sites and reduce the risk of them either dropping out of the study or not fully participating.

4) When creating a study, one must address the operational definitions for individual studies.  Give 3 examples of operational definitions you encountered in your project.  How does this process help or hinder the researcher?

Plaque Index (PI) – Assessment of the thickness and amount of plaque present at the gingival margin.

Sulcus Bleeding Index (SBI) – Amount of bleeding recorded after gentle probing into the sulcus.

Gingival Index (GI) – Scale to measure the severity of gingivitis. Determined by clinical signs such as gingival color and consistency.

All scores are determined by examining four surfaces on each tooth to be evaluated. Scores range from 0-3. Scores for each tooth are added then divided by four.

   Classifications:

a)      Excellent – 0

b)      Good – 0.1-1.0

c)      Fair – 1.1-2.0

d)     Poor – 2.1-3.0

Each index has a 0-3 evaluation that corresponds to the overall evaluation.

Operational definitions are required in order that readers understand the precise meanings of the terminology and research techniques.

5) Define the different scales of measurement (i.e. Ordinal, Nominal, Interval, Ratio). In each of these scales of measure, how would the researcher decide on which statistical analysis to use?  How did you decide what methodology to use (theoretically, you told me in METHODS chapter what you decided to do with all

of the datum)?

Ordinal (nonparametric) – data is ordered, intervals are not known. Data is indicated in greater and lesser degrees.

Nominal (nonparametric) – numerical classifications are given to none numerical data such as degrees of inflammation or responses on surveys. There is no order of data.

Interval (parametric) – ordered in a logical sequence. Intervals are equal and there is no zero point.

Ratio (parametric) – equal intervals between numbers with a meaningful zero point.

Statistical analysis would be based on the framework of the research. As I look closer at my particular study and the changes I have made I realize it will fall into the category of Ratio/Parametric. This study does have zero points I all the indices and the intervals are equal.

6) Discuss the types of reliability. Why does a researcher in health care consider reliability an important component of their study?

External reliability is used in qualitative research and can be enhanced by researcher status, informant choices, social situations and social conditions, analytic constructs and data analysis and techniques (pg. 148).

Internal reliability is when agreement is sought among many researchers on a single study. Threats to internal reliability include low-inference descriptors, more than one researcher, participant researchers, examination by peers and manually recorded data (pg 149).

Reliability equals replication. If reproduced, will the same results always occur?

7) Define validity. Examine internal and external validities and list attributes or problems associated with validity issues (think from the perspective of a potential patient or an informed peer reviewer of your study).

Validity wants to prove the accuracy of scientific findings. Bailey states that “ a study is valid only if investigators are truly addressing the constructs they set out to study or measure” (pg. 70).

There are two types of validity, internal and external.

Internal: This occurs during the process of the study. Factors such as history ( something happens to the subjects or environment during the study), maturation (time, what has happened to the subjects during the study, natural growth or development), testing (participants become familiar with the study and score higher due to more knowledge), selection (separating volunteers from those selected), mortality or attrition (death, illness, relocation of subject) and instrumentation (worn out, not calibrated correctly or with surveys cultural attitude and language bias).

External: By trying to control subjects and the environment of the study, researchers may make the study less likely to prove the same results outside of the study. Common threats are the Hawthorne effect (subjects perform better because of the attention given them for being in the study), replication (researchers must report the study well enough that it can be duplicated to prove validity), generalizability (results found in the study will fit the general population), multitreatments (participants are given more than one treatment therefore a single measure can not made) and researcher effect (positive or negative reaction to the researcher by participants).

8) Discuss the characteristics of a quantitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint.  Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of qualitative)?

Bailey pg 37 states that “the goal of quantitative research is to answer a specific question by showing statistical evidence that the data may be addressed in a particular way”. Quantitative research uses hard numbers and date to prove its validity.

True Experimental Design: This requires the concepts of manipulation, control and randomization. This considered a classical experimental design and does more to prove the efficacy of a new treatment.

Nonexperimental: There is no manipulation of the independent variable. Variables are fixed and no control can be used.

I prefer the hard numbers and clinical evidence of quantitative research. There is no subjective input that determines the results of the study.

9) Discuss the characteristics of a qualitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint. Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of quantitative)?

Qualitative research is conceptual. It describes cultures, multiple realities and is flexable and changes as the study progresses.

Historical Research Design: A group or organization is studied and their development recorded over a long period of time.

Case Method Research: Those studied are placed into groups and studied as a whole or one. This might include battered women or developmentally challenged individuals. The results for all are considered the results for each one.

I would not use this design. It seems more fit for the study of sociology or anthrology.

10) Your instructor has stated, "…the best positivistic (quantitative) studies often  arise from a relativist study or (qualitative) framework of inquiry." Discuss advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative research designs.  If you had it to do over, would you change the methodology you used in your study?

I would not change the design of my study from quantitative to qualitative. It simply would not fit. I am looking at pure clinical parameters not how the participants fell about their condition or they think they arrived there.

Quantitative is hard numbers and can be duplicated. Results can be documented and if done well duplicated.

Qualitative research is very subjective and fraught with researcher effect. There is too much interaction between researcher and participant along with the fact a hypothesis can never be fully proven and can always be argued another researcher.